Chemicalcomposition Of The Body
- 1. Chemical Composition of the Body www.freelivedoctor.com
- 2. Atoms Smallest units of matter that can undergo chemical change. Nucleus (center) contains: Protons (+ charge) Neutrons (no charge) Atomic mass: Sum of protons and neutrons. www.freelivedoctor.com
- 3. Atoms Atomic Number Number of protons in an atom Neutral atom Number of protons = number of electrons Isotopes Vary in number of neutrons Same in atomic number Vary in atomic mass www.freelivedoctor.com
- 4. Atoms Chemical element Includes all of the isotopic forms of a given atom Eg: Element Hydrogen: 3 isotopes Most common: one proton Deuterium: one proton, one neutron Tritium: one proton, two neutrons Commonly used in research 106 chemical elements www.freelivedoctor.com
- 5. Elements Four elements important to living organisms Carbon (C) Nitrogen (N) Oxygen (O) Hydrogen (H) www.freelivedoctor.com
- 6. Atoms Electrons (outside the nucleus): - charged Occupy orbitals surrounding nucleus. Valence electrons: Electrons in the outer most orbital that participate in chemical reactions (if orbit incomplete). Form chemical bonds. www.freelivedoctor.com
- 7. Orbitals Also called shells or energy levels Electrons usually found within a given orbital Levels (and max number of electrons) First shell: 2 electrons Second shell: 8 electrons Third shell: usually 8 electrons www.freelivedoctor.com
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- 9. Chemical Bonds, Molecules, and Ionic Compounds Chemical bonds: Interaction of valence electrons between 2 or more atoms. # bonds determined by # electrons needed to complete outer orbital. www.freelivedoctor.com
- 10. Covalent Bonds Atoms share their valence electrons. Nonpolar bonds: Electrons are equally distributed between the two identical atoms. Strongest bond. H 2 www.freelivedoctor.com
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- 13. Covalent Bonds Polar bonds: Electrons are shared between two different atoms. Electrons may be pulled more toward more atom. Oxygen, nitrogen, phosphate pull electrons towards themselves. www.freelivedoctor.com
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- 15. Ionic Bonds One or more valence electrons from an atom are completely transferred to a second atom. First atom loses electrons, + charged (cation). Second atom has more electrons, - charged (anion). www.freelivedoctor.com
- 16. Ionic Bonds Cation and anion attract, form ionic compound. Weaker than polar bonds. Dissociate easily when dissolved in H 2 0. NaCl Na + and Cl - www.freelivedoctor.com
- 17. www.freelivedoctor.com Table Salt, an Ionically Bonded Molecule Slide number: 1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 17p 18n 11p 12n 11p 12n 17p 18n + (+) (–) Na Cl + NaCl
- 18. Na Cl + www.freelivedoctor.com Table Salt, an Ionically Bonded Molecule Slide number: 2 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 17p 18n 11p 12n
- 19. Na Cl + www.freelivedoctor.com Table Salt, an Ionically Bonded Molecule Slide number: 3 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 17p 18n 11p 12n
- 20. Na Cl + www.freelivedoctor.com Table Salt, an Ionically Bonded Molecule Slide number: 4 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 17p 18n 11p 12n
- 21. Na Cl + www.freelivedoctor.com Table Salt, an Ionically Bonded Molecule Slide number: 5 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 17p 18n 11p 12n
- 22. Na Cl + (+) (–) www.freelivedoctor.com Table Salt, an Ionically Bonded Molecule Slide number: 6 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 17p 18n 11p 12n
- 23. NaCl www.freelivedoctor.com Table Salt, an Ionically Bonded Molecule Slide number: 7 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 11p 12n (+) 17p 18n (–)
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- 25. Interaction with water Hydrophilic: Formation of hydration spheres. Polar covalent bonds. Hydrophobic: Cannot form hydration spheres. Nonpolar covalent bonds. www.freelivedoctor.com
- 26. Hydrogen Bond Hydrogen forms a polar bond with another atom, hydrogen has a slight + charge. Weak attraction for for a second electronegative atom. www.freelivedoctor.com
- 27. Acids, Bases, and the pH Scale Acid: Molecule that can release protons (H + ). Proton donor. Base: Negatively charged ion that can combine with H + . Proton acceptor. www.freelivedoctor.com
- 28. pH pH = log _1__ [H + ] Normal pH blood = 7.35 - 7.45. Buffer: System of molecules and ions that act to prevent changes in [H + ]. www.freelivedoctor.com
- 29. Organic Molecules Molecules that contain carbon and hydrogen. Carbon has 4 electrons in outer orbital. Carbon covalently bonds to fill its outer orbital with 8 electrons. www.freelivedoctor.com
- 30. Organic Molecules Organic Chemistry: deals with molecules that contain carbon More than 5 million organic compounds have been identified The carbon atom can form bonds with a greater number of different elements than any other type of atom www.freelivedoctor.com
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- 32. Functional Groups Inactive “backbone” to which more reactive atoms are attached. www.freelivedoctor.com
- 33. Classes According to Functional Groups Ketone and aldehyde: carbonyl group Organic acid: carboxyl group Alcohol: hydroxyl group www.freelivedoctor.com
- 34. Stereoisomers Exactly the same atoms arranged in same sequence. Differ in spatial orientation of a functional group. D-isomers: right-handed L-isomers: left-handed Enzymes of all cells can combine only with the L-amino acids and D-sugars. www.freelivedoctor.com
- 35. Four main classes of Organic molecules Lipids Carbohydrates Proteins Nucleic Acids www.freelivedoctor.com
- 36. Lipids GR: Lipos=Fat Diverse group of molecules. Insoluble in polar solvents (H 2 0). Hydrophobic (nonpolar) Consist primarily of hydrocarbon chains and rings. www.freelivedoctor.com
- 37. Lipids Hydrocarbons Fatty acids Triglycerides Ketone Bodies Phospholipids Steroids Prostaglandins www.freelivedoctor.com
- 38. Hydrocarbons Includes oils and gases Carbons can be single bonds (saturated) Carbons can be double bonded (unsaturated) www.freelivedoctor.com
- 39. Fatty acids Nonpolar hydrocarbon chain Can be saturated (are stright) Can be unsaturated (bend at the double bond) Can be poly unsaturated (multiple bends) Carboxyl group on one end Large group www.freelivedoctor.com
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- 41. Triglycerides Formed by condensation of glycerol and 3 fatty acids. Ester bond Fatty acid consists of hydrocarbon chain with carboxylic acid end. May be saturated or unsaturated Saturated fats: Mostly animal sources Mostly solid at room temperature Unsaturated fats Mostly plant sources Mostly liquid at room temperature www.freelivedoctor.com
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- 43. Nutritional considerations of triglycerides Also called fat or neutral fat Stored in adipose cells Total fat intake should be about 30% of total energy intake Saturated fat >10% Saturated fats are implicated in heart disease and stroke Data suggests they promote high blood cholesterol www.freelivedoctor.com
- 44. Phospholipids A number of categories All contain a phosphate group Most common Glycerol (3 carbons) Fatty Acids on carbon 1 and 2 Phosphate group attached to carbon (and other polar groups eg.: choline) www.freelivedoctor.com
- 45. Lecithin www.freelivedoctor.com
- 46. Phospholipid Are amphipathic: contain both polar and nonpolar domains Head: contains polar groups Hydrophilic Tail: Contains fatty acids (nonpolar) Hydrophobic www.freelivedoctor.com
- 47. Phospholipids Major component of cell membranes Hydrophylic heads orient to water Hydrophobic tails orient to each other Kind of phospholipid varies based on cell or organelle www.freelivedoctor.com
- 48. Micelle formation www.freelivedoctor.com
- 49. Ketone Bodies Results from the hydrolysis of triglycerides by adipocytes Liberates free FA into blood FA function as an acid in blood Most FA used as energy source by some tissues If not, converted by liver into Ketone bodies www.freelivedoctor.com
- 50. Ketone Bodies 4-carbon chunks www.freelivedoctor.com
- 51. Ketone Bodies Produced in the rapid breakdown of FA Low-carbohydrate diets Uncontrolled Diabetes mellitus Ketosis: Elevated level of FA in blood Ketoacidosis: ketosis is high enough to lower blood ph Can cause coma, death Filtered by the kidney www.freelivedoctor.com
- 52. Steroids Nonpolar and insoluble in H 2 0. All have cholesterol as precursor. www.freelivedoctor.com
- 53. Prostaglandins Prostaglandins: Fatty acid with cyclic hydrocarbon group. Derived from arachidonic acid. www.freelivedoctor.com
- 54. Prostaglandins www.freelivedoctor.com
- 55. Carbohydrates Organic molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. CH 2 0 General formula: C n H 2n O n -ose denotes a sugar molecule www.freelivedoctor.com
- 56. Carbohydrates Supply energy Glucose Complex carbohydrates Provide structural support cellulose Part of plasma membrane Monomer: monosaccarides www.freelivedoctor.com
- 57. Carbohydrates Monosaccharide: the “simple sugars” Pentoses (5-carbons): Ribose: in RNA Deoxyribose: in DNA Hexoses (6-carbons):structural isomers Glucose, fructose and galactose Characteristics Soluable Sweet Alcoholic fermentation www.freelivedoctor.com
- 58. Glucose Also called : Dextrose Transportable in the blood Blood glucose C 6 H 12 O 6 www.freelivedoctor.com
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- 60. Fructose Fruit sugar www.freelivedoctor.com
- 61. Galactose C 6 H 12 O 6 www.freelivedoctor.com
- 62. Carbohydrates Disaccharide: 2 monosaccharides joined covalently. Sucrose Glucose and fructose Maltose Glucose and glucose Lactose Glucose and galactose www.freelivedoctor.com
- 63. Disaccharides Characteristics Sweet Soluable Can be fermented Formation: called condensation Requires an enzyme Removal of molecule of water Also called dehydration synthesis Formation of a covalent bond www.freelivedoctor.com
- 64. Formation of Disaccharides www.freelivedoctor.com
- 65. Hydrolysis Reverse of dehydration synthesis. Digestion reaction. H 2 0 molecule split. www.freelivedoctor.com
- 66. Carbohydrates Polysaccharides: Many monosaccharides joined covalently. General formula: (C 6 H 10 O 5 ) n Characteristics: Devoid of taste Do not form solutions Iodine test Iodine +starch+blue www.freelivedoctor.com
- 67. Polysaccarides Kinds: Starch Glucose subunits branched Dextrins Glycogen (animal starch) Glucose subunits Branched Cellulose Glucose subunits Long, unbranched chains www.freelivedoctor.com
- 68. Proteins General Information: GR: proteios=first rank ~50% of the organic material of the body Functions Structural: Cell structures, CTs Functional: Enzymes, hormones, Hb, etc! www.freelivedoctor.com
- 69. Proteins Protein Structure Large molecules (polymers) composed of amino acid sub-units (monomers). Amino Acid structure amino group (NH 2 ) carboxylic acid group (COOH) Radical group (R): functional group H www.freelivedoctor.com
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- 71. Proteins 20 different standard amino acids. Based on the properties of the functional group E.g.: www.freelivedoctor.com
- 72. Proteins Dehydration synthesis: Amino end of one amino acid combines with hydroxyl group of carboxylic end of another amino acid. Peptide bond: Bond between two adjacent amino acids. www.freelivedoctor.com
- 73. Peptide bond www.freelivedoctor.com
- 74. Proteins Dipeptide: 2 amino acids Tripeptide: 3 amino acids Polypeptide: many amino acids Number of amino acids varies Up to 100 aa Protein Over 100aa Great variety! www.freelivedoctor.com
- 75. Protein structure Four structural levels Primary structure Based on amino acid sequence Amino acid sequence determined by DNA Secondary structure Based on hydrogen bonding between close aa Tertiery structure 3-D shape Quaternary structure Only in proteins with 2 or more polypeptide chains www.freelivedoctor.com
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- 77. Secondary structure (2 o ) Based on the primary structure Weak hydrogen bonds form between hydrogen and oxygen of a different amino acid. Two main kinds of secondary structure: Alpha helix: Bond cause chain to twist in a helix. Beta pleated sheet: interactions between lengths of the polypeptide chain www.freelivedoctor.com
- 78. Secondary structures www.freelivedoctor.com
- 79. Tertitary structure Polypeptide chains bend and fold. Based on interactions with aa in different parts of the polypeptide chain disulfide bonds: covalent Hydrogen bonds: weak Produce 3 -dimensional shapes. Chemical interaction of each protein produces own characteristic tertiary structure Denaturing protein Irreversible disruption of tertiary structure www.freelivedoctor.com
- 80. Bonds responsible for 3 o structure www.freelivedoctor.com
- 81. Tertiary structure www.freelivedoctor.com
- 82. Quaternary Structure Number of polypeptide chains covalently linked together. Insulin, hemoglobin www.freelivedoctor.com
- 83. Conjugated proteins Protein combined with another type of molecule Glycoproteins: carbohydrate with protein Membranes, hormone Lipoproteins: Lipid and protein Membranes, blood plasma Hemoproteins: iron and protein Hemoglobin, cytochromes www.freelivedoctor.com
- 84. Nucleic Acids Include the macromolecules: DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid RNA: ribonucleic acid Involved in heredity and genetic regulation Are polymers: Monomeric subunit:nucleotides Bonded together in a dehydration synthesis reaction www.freelivedoctor.com
- 85. Nucleic Acids www.freelivedoctor.com
- 86. Nucleotides Structure of a nucleotide: 3 subunits Pentose sugar Phosphate group Nitrogenous base Purines: two rings Guanine Adenine Pyrimidines: one ring Cytosine Thymine Uricil www.freelivedoctor.com
- 87. Nucleotide Structure www.freelivedoctor.com
- 88. Nitrogenous Bases www.freelivedoctor.com
- 89. DNA Huge molecules with simple structure Big time data storage! Structure Nucleotides Pentose sugar: Deoxyribose Bases: Purines: G and A Pyrimidines: C and T Form double-stranded helix www.freelivedoctor.com
- 90. DNA Nucleotide strands: 2 Sugar-phosphate backbone Bases stick out Bases bond to each other Base pairing: A – T G – C Called law of complementary base pairing www.freelivedoctor.com
- 91. Nitrogenous Bases www.freelivedoctor.com
- 92. DNA www.freelivedoctor.com
- 93. RNA Means by which DNA directs cellular activities Structure Pentose sugar: ribose Bases: uracil (not thymine) Single stranded Three main types Messenger RNA (mRNA) Transfer RNA (tRNA) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) www.freelivedoctor.com
- 94. DNA vs RNA www.freelivedoctor.com
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Cell Anatomy
- 1. Amino acids and peptides The “Lego” of proteins www.freelivedoctor.com
- 2. Amino Acids Same general structure Called alpha amino acids L- isomer is physiologically active Side chain or R group determines other properties Acid-base properties www.freelivedoctor.com
- 3. Amino Acids, General pK of carboxyl group around 2.3 Deprotonated at physiological pH R – COO - pK of amino group around 9.5 Protonated at physiological pH H 3 N + -R Some R-groups are acidic or basic www.freelivedoctor.com
- 4. Nonpolar amino acids www.freelivedoctor.com
- 5. Aromatic Amino Acids www.freelivedoctor.com
- 6. Polar Amino Acids, alcohols www.freelivedoctor.com
- 7. Polar Amino Acids (sulfur containing) www.freelivedoctor.com
- 8. Polar amino acids (amides) www.freelivedoctor.com
- 9. Charged Amino Acids (Acidic) www.freelivedoctor.com
- 10. Charged Amino Acids (Basic) www.freelivedoctor.com
- 11. Titration of Amino acids Titration of glycine www.freelivedoctor.com
- 12. Titration of Glutamate www.freelivedoctor.com
- 13. Purification of amino acids Chromatography Various types Ion exchange Uses net charge or can change with pH Separate K, D and A HPLC www.freelivedoctor.com
- 14. Electrophoresis Using electricity to move particles through a gelatinous matrix Isoelectric point IEF www.freelivedoctor.com
- 15. Peptides Peptide bond is amide linkage between amino acids No free rotation about C-N bond due to partial double bond character of bond resonance www.freelivedoctor.com
- 16. Tetrapeptide Note planes of peptide bonds www.freelivedoctor.com
- 17. Peptides Peptides are vectorial Have N and C termini Sequences read H 3 N + ---COO - P-I-G www.freelivedoctor.com
- 18. Draw a tetrapeptide of L-A-R-D at physiological pH Answer www.freelivedoctor.com
- 19. Biologically Interesting Peptides Aspartame L-aspartyl-Lphenylalanine methyl ester www.freelivedoctor.com
- 20. Other small interesting peptides Enkephalins Y-G-G-F-L Y-G-G-F-M Oxytocin C-Y-I-Q-N-C-P-L-G-NH 2 Has C—C disulfide Vasopressin C-Y-F-Q-N-C-P-R-G-NH 2 Also disulfide www.freelivedoctor.com
- 21. Chemical Synthesis of Peptides Why? Done solid phase Problem with in solution Hard to make pure desired sequence Purify by filtration Side chains blocked Made backwards ( C---N) www.freelivedoctor.com
- 22. Scheme for peptide synthesis www.freelivedoctor.com
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